I sat down to write this section half a dozen times, but I just couldn't get started.  Why?  Because at this point in my research, I have reached overload.  There are so many books, articles and even web sties written about, and devoted to, possible strategies or methods for implementing active learning, that I was overwhelmed.  What I chose to do is to combine several references into a broad overview of active learning teaching strategies with the ideas grouped into broad categories of learning.  The categories are the big picture and the ideas are the specific things that teachers and professors may do in class to encourage active learning.

The categories of active learning strategies are derived from  Silberman, 1996; Specific Pedagogies; Meyers and Jones, 1993; Golub, 1994; Harmin, 1994, Bouton and Garth, 1983.   The categories are:

 

Now, to support your implementation of these strategies don't forget the four elements of active learning (talking and listening, reading, writing, and reflecting).  In addition, think back to the section on implementing active learning.  Remember that the first thing you should do, before you implement active learning thereby applying these strategies and ideas, is to rethink and clarify you course objectives and content (Meyers and Jones, 1993).

Whole Class Learning supports the idea that students must take responsibility for their own individual learning.  Whole Class Learning, as opposed to Small Group Learning, requires the students to act on their own, as an individual, but to eventually interact in the classroom environment by relating their ideas, thoughts, issues and questions.  To do encourage students to take responsibility for their learning, teachers must give the students ideas and methods for taking that responsibility.  Following is a list of Whole Class Learning methods that help students take and maintain that individual responsibility.

The idea behind "small group discussion" is that working in a group students will talk, listen, discuss, negotiate, write, think and eventually reflect on a topic, question or situation.   This is a relatively easy technique to adopt and implement.  The students will begin to work on their interpersonal skills, with the added benefit that everyone should have the opportunity to talk or give input (even quieter, shy students), which is nearly impossible in a large group because of time and/or varying self-confidence levels.
The group time should be well-structured, useful time that doesn't last long enough for them to get bored, but just long enough to get the question answered.

The students may choose a group or be assigned a group.  For example, a teacher could divide up the class based on the color shirt every wears, the students birthday months, "numbering off" (like in gym class) or the color of each students' eyes.  The number of persons in a group may vary from two (to implement learning partners and mentoring/tutoring concepts) to six members (for problem solving).  More than six usually gives quieter, shy people an easy way to hide, so as to not voice their thoughts.

Teachers and professors should not assume that students know how to handle group discussions, therefore they must establish guidelines before the activity starts.  Meyers and Jones (1993) provide a few key ideas to start the development of individual teacher guidelines for group activity:

In addition to guidelines for group discussion, I suggest that the leader explain good listening techniques, so that students begin to understand how to listen.  If the guidelines require them to listen (and not interrupt) they must understand how and why to do this.

The type of group activities that fits small group discussion include:

The key to small group discussion is that students learn from each other.  The teacher or professor is a provider of instructions and information, but truly acts as an observer.  Don't feel that students must present to the class the information they have gathered.  If they have a forum for presentation in the small groups, then they are able to voice their information.  Having multiple groups operating at a time versus individual presentations saves time and allows them to practice their communication skills.

  COOPERATIVE AND COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

Cooperative learning and collaborative learning - some researchers make a distinction between the two phrases, others don't.  The researchers that make the distinction note that in cooperative learning students receive their direction and resource information from the teacher; versus collaborative learning where the student determines their own direction and resources and therefore works at a higher cognitive level (Ventimiglia, 1994).  For our purposes, I will use the term cooperative learning, because most of what I read did not make a distinction between the two terms.

Cooperative learning involves (but is not limited to) graded group projects, cooperative final exams, and groups to enhance student work.  It seems that cooperative learning brings in the fundamentals of problem-based or inquiry learning in that students are often given a problem to solve, or a situation to address and recommend a solution(s) for.  Cooperative learning is similar to Small Group Learning in that it allows students

"(1) to clarify their thinking by talking and writing,
(2) to test their ideas against other students,
(3) to appreciate new perspectives, and
(4) to practice group communication skills."  (Meyers and Jones, 1993, p. 75).

The differences between the two are numerous, as well.  First of all, cooperative learning groups work together longer and have more a stake in their group involvement and relationships (i.e., a grade).  In addition, members will have assigned tasks, therefore there is individual accountability, but also members are dependent on the group for the end result.  Finally, in a cooperative group situation, students are forced into higher level thinking, positive interaction (to maintain a harmonious group), and critical thinking skills to analyze others' work and to determine the group dynamics as a functioning unit.

The advantages of cooperative learning are, first and foremost, the fact that retention and recall are increased, as is student achievement (Meyers and Jones, 1993).  Secondly, cooperative learning is an example of things to come.  Working as a member of a team, with required results, is a daily occurrence in the professional world.  One of the most often asked series of questions in job interviews for my students revolves around group work.  "When did you last work as a member of a team?  What role did you assume?  Describe the group dynamics.  Do you assume different roles when you work as a member of a team?"  Cooperative learning (group projects) allows students to gain "real world" experience and to deal with "real world' situations by placing them in a situation that requires higher order thinking.  Needless to say, cooperative learning requires students to improve their social and interaction skills.  Which brings up the idea that students do not necessarily know how to work in a group and teachers must instruct them in the basics of teamwork and "groupsmanship."  In teaching students how to work as a part of a team, Merrill Harmin (1994) suggests examples of skills that students need to be required to apply:

The main type cooperative learning that I believe fits with GIS and that I want to address here is the graded group project.  In my GIS class, as well as in Advanced Digital Topics in Geography and Remote Sensing, I require a variety of group projects.  In fact, in these courses, the students take the exams individually, but everything else is done in a team environment.  There are several requirements for my group projects.  First, since each class requires more than one group project, the students must choose different partners each time, until the final project.  For the final project, they may put together the team they need.  My group sizes are two to three students, any more and I believe it is to easy for a student to get a free ride.  The students must submit a paper and complete a class presentation for their grade, usually a 75/25 split.

The downfall of my required class projects, as I see it, is making every student understand that they are accountable for their actions (or lack thereof).  Which brings up Roger Johnson and David Johnson's five key elements to think about when considering cooperative learning (as discussion in Meyers and Jones, 1993, pp. 75-78).

The fact of the matter is, it is not always easy to work as a member of a team, however in most situations a team will produce better results, with less individual effort, than if the project was completed by one person.

The group projects that I use in my GIS and "Advanced" GIS class include "Siting a Cracker Barrel in Etowah County", "Siting a New Building on UNA's Campus", and a variety of research projects such as a GIS Topic Paper and a GIS Applications Paper.  A GIS "topic" paper is about a use of GIS (i.e., GIS in Archaeology, Natural Resources, City Planning, or Utilities) whereas a GIS "application" paper about  particular organization that uses GIS on a daily basis.


EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING  

Experiential Learning involves - requires - students to do something, where students are placed in a situation that requires them to think, interact, and learn in a "real-world" environment.  Experiential Learning means they are "living" the environment, project, or situation.  There are six types of experiential learning addressed here:  Internships, Field Experiences, Simulations, Demonstrations, Case Studies and Service Learning.

PRESENTATION LEARNING

Presentation learning is not a category that I found in any of the books, however I did find peer teaching and debate as methods of learning.  I believe that when students are required to present material, whether as a result of their research or group project or in presenting a new topic to the class, they learn more than if the material were presented to them.